Hurstwic: Viking Sword and Shield Combat Techniques

Viking Age Arms and Armor
Viking Sword and Shield Combat Technique

As described earlier in this series of article, we don't really know how weapons were used in the Viking age. We don't have any material that teaches us how Vikings used their weapons. The best we can do is to make some educated guesses based on a number of sources, as described in an earlier article.

Some people believe that Viking-age fights were crude and unsophisticated: that two big, hairy men faced one another and traded fantastic blows in an attempt to cut through the defense and into the man behind it.

We believe Vikings used other approaches. For one thing, we believe that skillful use of the shield negates these powerful blows, shunting them off-target to where they do little damage. In addition, the sagas suggest other approaches to fighting. As described in an earlier article, we believe the fights in the Sagas of Icelanders represent, for the most part, realistic Viking-age fights.

The sagas do, in fact, describe fights between big, hairy men who used powerful blows. But the sagas also describe more sophisticated techniques. We think Vikings fought using techniques that worked, choosing the technique best suited for the job: powerful direct attacks meant to blast through any defense; sophisticated and subtle attacks meant to finesse their way past a defense; and attacks that clearly fall into the category of dirty tricks.

This article summarizes some of the more sophisticated fighting styles we believe were used by Vikings. We regularly practice these techniques. We regularly demonstrate these techniques. I have written a book on these techniques. And recently, we have created a class to teach these techniques to students of historical martial arts. I thank the many people who assisted with this research.

The usual disclaimer: These materials are for reference and study purposes only. Historical combat is potentially dangerous. Students wishing to explore these techniques should do so only under the supervision of a qualified, experienced teacher of historical martial arts.

Our research suggests that Viking age fights took the form of brief, intense exchanges of attacks and counter-attacks, followed by a withdrawal to regroup and to plan the next attack. The combatants began in a guard (a defensive starting position) and selected an attack meant to get past the opponent's defenses. Fighting men did not simply enter a fight and flail away at their opponents willy-nilly. Men entered a fight with a plan, with a set of attacks in mind suitable for the weapons in use and for the opponent that they faced.

The later combat treatises talk about the three parts to an exchange: the onset, which is the initial attack from a distance; the handwork, which is the action after the swords have engaged; and the withdrawal, which is the attempt to disengage without being struck. These exchanges were an attempt to degrade the opponent's level of control by means of a series of quick attacks.

The later treatises teach the value of attacking first to one quarter of the opponent then to another quarter. Meyer's treatise of 1570 shows how a man should be divided into quarters and suggests drills for developing skill in attacking to alternate quarters. Each attack draws the opponent's defenses to a new quarter. Ideally, the attacker pulls the blow and attacks to another quarter even before contacting his opponent's defense.

Any one of these attacks could hit its target and end the fight, but a skilled opponent could be expected to parry the attacks. However, the repeated attacks to alternating quarters reduces the opponent's ability to defend, making it less and less likely he can parry the subsequent attack. Thus, the combination of attacks has a better opportunity of causing the opponent to overcommit, allowing an attack to get past the opponent's defenses.

There is an analogy in the modern game of tennis. During a rally or a volley, the player in control would prefer to return the ball first to one side of the opponent's court, then to the opposite side, forcing the opponent to have to run the width of the court between each return. A skilled player could return the ball the first time or the second time, but his ability to return the ball is degraded by his constant running from one side of the court to the other.

A corollary of this approach is that a combatant must always keep the initiative, in order to remain in control of the series of attacks. Thus, a fighter strives to be the first to attack, and failing that, strives to regain the initiative during an attack. A fighter defends with a technique that is also an attack. During an exchange, a fighter withdraws if, after a small number of attacks, a blow has not landed on the opponent, lest the fighter's own ability to control the attacks starts to degrade.

Another aspect of the shape of combat is the very aggressive use of the shield. While it can be used as a passive defense, it is much more effective when used very actively, held in a forward position nearly parallel to the line of engagement. Here, the shield is in a good position to shift an incoming attack off-line early with little effort.

Lastly, there are some fundamentals, which might not be obvious to a layman. For example, the combatant must maintain a stance that allows good balance and ease of movement. Stepping out from an incoming blow is an excellent defense, while stepping around to bring a target within range is an important part of offense. The grip on the sword must be fluid, neither too tight nor too loose, so the sword can move in the hand as needed.

Most martial arts systems have a series of guards or wards: positions that are way-points or decision-points representing beginnings and endings of attacks and defenses. One should not linger in a guard, but the positions have good offensive and defensive options and provide a combatant with an opportunity to size up an opponent and decide what to do next.

Viking combatants began in a relaxed stance with the shields nearly parallel, rather than flat on to the opponent. This position gives a combatant a clear view of the opponent, with the shield in an aggressive, forward position. This position puts the forward edge of the shield well away from the combatant's body, where it can deflect or otherwise spoil an incoming attack well before it reaches its target.

Some guards that may have been used (adopted and named here from the German longsword tradition) include:

plow ward

Plow guard (left) with the sword point aimed at the opponent's face and well suited for thrusting.

Ox guard (right) with the sword held alongside the head like the horn of the ox and aimed at the opponent's face. The later manuals suggest that this a very versatile guard.

ox ward

change ward

Change guard (left) with the sword held along side the combatant's leg, hidden behind his shield and body. The opponent has a hard time seeing the sword in this guard.

High guard (right), a guard that threatens a powerful downward attack.

high ward

Early longsword manuals teach a different version of the high guard, with the sword held closer to the shoulder. It's not clear to us if this has an advantage over the later form of the high guard when applied to sword and shield.

The shield can be placed in the outside guard, as shown in all the photos above, or in the inside guard, as shown to the right. The sword arm must pass over the shield arm for the higher guards and under it for the lower guards.

Guards represent positions that not only permit a variety of attacks, but offer a defense against likely attacks. A guard such as the one shown to the right is unwise. It allows a strong attack. It invites an attack, which can be desirable in some circumstances. However, it does not permit an effective defense. There is no strong defense against the obvious attack of coming in under the blade to grapple.

There is not, to my knowledge, anything in the sources that suggest which guards were used by Vikings, or even that Vikings used guards at all in their combat. However, given the importance of guards not only in a wide variety of later medieval combat manuals, but also in many other forms of martial arts from other historical periods, it seems probable that skilled Viking age fighters used guards.

The range of cuts used by Vikings probably included: a high cut, attempting to split the skull in two; a diagonal cut, attempting to separate neck from shoulders; a middle horizontal cut, which can target anywhere from shoulder to thigh; and a low rising cut, which attacks anywhere from the leg up to the armpit.

Cuts can be made from either side. It might at first seem that the shield is in the way of a cut from the left. The sketch to the right is taken from Talhoffer's combat treatise of 1467. It illustrates the use of longsword and dueling shield, which are both much larger than Viking age weapons, but we believe the techniques taught for these larger weapons are applicable to Viking weapons. Both of the combatants have swept their shields from the outside to the inside and are making a thrust over their shield arms.

A similar approach seems to work quite well with Viking age sword and shield. Attacks can be made both above and below the shield arm when the shield is on the inside.

Evidence suggests that sword and shield combat targeted every part of the body. Forensic evidence from skeletal remains shows wounds from head to lower leg. When a target is mentioned in the sagas, the head, upper body, and legs are all mentioned with nearly equal frequency, while arms and back and shoulder are mentioned less frequently.

Even the names of weapons tell us something about common targets. The sword of Bolli in Laxdæla saga was named Fótbítr (Leg Biter), which suggests that the leg was considered a good target for a sword attack in the Viking age.

This conclusion contradicts the teachings of the later combat manuals, and it represents a good example of a situation where the later manuals can not be applied to sword and shield fighting.

The later manuals teach against using leg cuts. With a weapon like a longsword, a leg cut can easily be trumped by stepping backwards and delivering a scalp cut to the head. The geometry favors the head cut.

The combatant on the right has delivered a cut to the leg. The combatant on the left has stepped backwards, removing the target, and is about to deliver a scalp cut. The combatant on the right is about to receive a painful lesson on the folly of an attack to the leg with a longsword.

With sword and shield, the combatant holds offense in one hand, defense in the other, and as a result, the dynamics change from those of longsword combat. A leg cut can't be trumped by the scalp cut, since the shield defends against a cut to the head as the leg cut connects. Forensic evidence, saga evidence, and common sense suggest that the leg is a good target when using sword and shield, against the advice of the later masters teaching different weapons.

In a fight, it does no good to attack the opponent's shield. Behind his shield, an opponent is well protected. Instead, one must attack the opponent's body. As a result, a primary objective of an attack is to draw the opponent's shield out of the way, opening up a new target for a subsequent attack. One can imagine tricks in which a blow is targeted at one quarter, causing the opponent to move his shield to defend. That response gives the attacker the opening he needs. He can pull his blow or otherwise deceive his opponent and retarget the blow at the available opening.

Similar techniques show up in the later treatises. One of the key techniques in the German longsword tradition is to deliver an attack to one quarter, drawing the opponent to defend there, and then to pull away to deliver an attack to another quarter, as described earlier. We have applied this approach to Viking age sword and shield and find it is equally effective with those weapons.

For example, the later medieval combat treatises teach that the ox guard is a particularly useful and versatile guard for a variety of weapons (illustrated in Talhoffer's 1467 treatise to the right). From this position, one could start a cut or thrust to the face and then, when the opponent repositioned his shield, pull the attack and strike to the lower quarter. Did fighting men in Viking times use this guard or use these tricks? We don't know.

The photos below show a modern interpretation of a sequence using that kind of trick.

Attacking to alternate quarters:

Brown (on the right) begins in ox guard, shield outside. Blue (left) begins in plow, shield outside.

Brown delivers a thrust to the face. Blue responds by bringing his shield up to defend.

Brown pulls the thrust and delivers a cut to Blue's exposed leg.

This simple sequence illustrates the concept of attacking to one quarter to draw away the opponent's defense, then pulling the attack to target the resulting opening in another quarter. However, a skilled combatant is unlikely to be as unresponsive as Blue is in the sequence above. A trained, experienced fighter might expect Brown's trick and be prepared to respond in an appropriate matter. As a result, the two combatants are likely to continue their handwork (their attacks and counter-attacks), until either an attack lands on its target, or until the two combatants withdraw into a guard to prepare to fight again.

Let's extend this sequence, a step at a time, to illustrate this concept. Each new sequence begins using the identical moves as the previous sequence. However, in each case, the combatant who took the blow that ended the previous sequence reacts with a response consistent with the principles of the later combat manuals and lands a blow on his opponent to end the sequence. The final sequence ends with a withdrawal, in which the combatants separate, retreating into a guard to begin the fight again.

These sequences do not appear in any of the later combat manuals and are based solely on conjecture. However, we believe that the techniques illustrated here follow the principles laid out in the later manuals.

White cuts to Blue's leg:

First, a recap of the elementary technique shown above, the first part of an extended sequence. The combatants have reversed sides in the photos to make their movements more clearly visible.

White (on the left) begins in ox guard, with his shield in outside guard. Blue (on the right) begins in a guard of his choice, with his shield in outside guard.

White thrusts to Blue's head, stepping forward with his right foot. Blue raises his shield to defend.

White pulls the thrust and cuts to the opening on Blue's exposed leg.

This technique shows up repeatedly in the later manuals. A combatant delivers an attack to one quarter. As the opponent shifts his defenses to that quarter, the combatant pulls and attacks to the opening provided by his opponent.

Blue cuts to White's head:

Recap: White and Blue begin as above. White thrusts to Blue's head and then pulls the attack to cut low.

As the thrust comes in, Blue steps out to his right with his right foot and steps back on his left foot, removing White's target. Blue delivers a short edge cut to White's head.

Blue recognizes the feint and removes the obvious target. Then Blue attacks to the opening.

Blue might choose to attack to the head from a higher angle than is shown in the photo. This is very effective, and it allows Blue to deliver either a cut to the head or a devastating thrust to the face.

Although not clear from the photo, Blue has effectively placed his legs out of range. Regardless, a more careful Blue might choose to lower his shield for further protection.

White cuts to Blue's arm:

Recap: White and Blue begin as above. White thrusts and then pulls the attack to cut low. Blue steps out and back to cut to White's head.

When White sees his low target moving away, he brings his sword up in front of him for an attack to the other side. White brings his shield back to block Blue's short edge attack to the head. White slices to Blue's exposed arm.

White, realizing that his target has vanished, retargets his attack. White moves his shield to block Blue's attack, a move which also conveniently positions Blue's arm for the attack.

Blue applies a shield bind to White:

Recap: White and Blue begin as above. White thrusts and pulls the attack to cut low. Blue steps out and back to cut to White's head. White brings his sword up to attack to Blue's arm.

As White raises his right arm for the attack, Blue steps around and aggressively binds White's sword arm with his shield, preventing White from making his attack. Blue cuts to the inside of White's leg.

White's attack to Blue's arm is an obvious choice. As White's sword goes up, a quick thinking Blue might recognize a good opportunity to apply a shield bind to White's raised arm, as was done here.

Additionally, Blue is well set up for a thrust under his shield to White's belly, an attack that White can't easily see.

White withdraws:

Recap: White and Blue begin as above. White thrusts and pulls the attack to cut low. Blue steps out and back to cut to White's head. White brings his sword up to attack Blue's arm. Blue steps out and begins to apply a shield bind.

To avoid the shield bind and to end this exchange, White interposes his shield before Blue can apply the bind.

White applies pressure on Blue through his shield and shoves him away.

The shove is confusing to Blue; it might indicate pressure leading to an advance, or an attack meant to cause loss of balance, or merely a jerk to provide an opportunity for withdrawal. In this instance, it's used for withdrawal.

White and Blue both retreat out of range and adopt a guard. White and Blue prepare for another exchange.

The later combat manuals teach than an exchange should be limited to only a few maneuvers before retreating into a guard to begin the fight again. White avoids the shield bind by shoving Blue, then withdraws into a guard.

We believe this kind of short, intense exchange was typical of Viking age combat. When executed at speed, this full sequence of five attacks and counter-attacks takes less than two seconds, yet any of the attacks could have been lethal if the other combatant had not been prepared with a ready response. An extended sequence for Viking axes using similar principles is illustrated in the article on axe techniques.

If White accepts Blue's shield bind, the fight is effectively ended. White has several options for declining the shield bind in this sequence.

White declines the shield bind:

As Blue applies a bind to White's arm with his shield...

... White declines the bind.

White steps back on his right foot and delivers a quick scalp cut to Blue's head over Blue's shield.

A well-prepared Blue has several good options for blocking this attack.

White's scalp cut, while quick, is not powerful. White could have chosen a better response against an opponent protected with a helmet as Blue is in the photograph.

In the previous sequence, Blue used a shield bind on White. Here is a sequence that shows the effectiveness of a shield bind at opening a line of attack and immobilizing an opponent.

A shield bind:

Brown (right) begins in plow, shield outside. Blue (left) begins in high, shield outside.

Blue delivers a high cut to Brown's head.

The later manuals teach again and again the benefits of an attack to the head. The sagas say that attacks to the head could have lethal results, despite the protection of a helmet.

If Blue doesn't want to risk an attack to Brown's helmet because he fears the helmet offers Brown too much protection, Blue could attack to the shoulder or attack to the neck below the helmet.

As the cut comes in, Brown drops the point of his sword, steps to the side, and sweeps his shield from outside to inside, catching Blue's incoming cut and forcing it off line.

Brown brings his point back on line and thrusts to Blue's exposed side.

Brown has completely bound up Blue and controls his sword, shield, and body. A thrust to the side is quick, but cuts to the exposed back would also work. If Brown doesn't feel Blue is correctly positioned for the proper cut, Brown has enough leverage with his shield to easily reposition Blue for the cut.

This shield bind seems to effectively end the fight. Once in a shield bind, a combatant has few options. Although not apparent in the photos, Brown has excellent control not only over Blue's weapons, but also over Blue's body. Blue's weapons are useless, and Brown has good targets at the head, shoulders, back, or legs.

We have found the shield bind to have surprisingly wide applicability: in the onset, as part of the first contact between combatants; in the handwork, when combatants are engaged; and for the withdrawal, as combatants separate.

This sequence is an excellent example of a situation in which the shield is used to control the opponent's weapon, not through contact with his weapon, but rather through contact with his body. We find more and more situations where this kind of control can be used all throughout the handwork, and independent of whether the opponent's weapon is high or low.

The technique of the shield bind shares some similarities with Verkehren (Reversing), a technique described in later longsword treatises such as Meyer and Ringeck. All of our sword and shield interpretation is based on speculation, but it's reassuring when similar techniques show up in later treatises. Such instances lend support to our conjectures.

The shield bind is such a powerful technique for ending a fight that we wondered if there might be some way to avoid it. Although not mentioned in the later manuals, here's a conjecture that appears promising.

Declining a shield bind:

Blue and Brown begin as before. Blue begins to deliver a high cut. Brown steps out and begins to sweep his shield to catch Blue's incoming attack.

sword and shield seq 2 alt c

However, the attack is a fake. Blue executes a running off to the outside, and he does not step forward with his fake cut. The running off looks very convincing to Brown, who continues to execute a shield bind.

sword and shield seq 2 alt d

Brown, meeting no resistance, overshoots, allowing Blue to attack to the head or other target.

Blue has other alternatives here for declining the bind. Whatever he chooses, he must convince Brown that the attack continues, so that Brown overcommits to the shield bind.

sword and shield seq 2 alt e

If a combatant can't trick the opponent into creating an opening, he may have to create his own opening. One example is shown in the illustration to the right from Talhoffer's treatise. The combatant on the left has just kicked his opponent's shield from outside to inside guard, creating an opening.

A modern interpretation of this trick using Viking sword and shield is shown in the photos below.

Creating an opening with a kick:

Brown (on the left) begins in change guard, shield outside. Blue begins in plow, shield outside.

Brown makes a low rising short edge cut to Blue's legs, under Blue's shield, while stepping forward. Blue brings his shield down to defend. This puts Blue's shield in a good position for Brown to turn his step into a kick.

Brown kicks Blue's shield to the inside and brings his sword up for an attack to the opening. Blue is thoroughly bound up by the momentum of Brown's kick. Brown is free to cut to the neck, shoulders, back, or legs as he pleases.

Showy tricks like this are not without their hazards. Brown's unprotected leg is a very inviting target for Blue (or for another combatant nearby).

Declining the kick:

Brown and Blue begin as above. Brown cuts between Blue's legs, but Blue steps back as Brown attacks. Brown, already committed to the kick, meets no resistance and overshoots.

Brown's exposed foot makes for an inviting target, although an attack to head or neck could also work here.

The later medieval combat treatises teach the advantages of closing the distance to grapple during a fight. There are instances where a combatant might step right in to his opponent, converting the sword fight into a wrestling match, and pinning his opponent's arms and weapons or executing a disarm or a throw.

From the stories, we know that Norsemen enjoyed wrestling and practiced it as a sport. At the Hegranessþing spring assembly (left, as the site appears today), young men thought it would be good to arrange wrestling matches, as told in chapter 72 of Grettis saga. Grettir was unrecognized, and he was urged to participate in the contests.

Did Vikings also practice wrestling in combat? The Viking age swords were short enough that, when in distance, it was only a short step to be within grappling range, so it seems quite possible. But we don't know.

Earlier, I had thought that grappling would be difficult with Viking era shields. However, Talhoffer describes a technique with dueling shield and mace (shown to the right) which works nicely with Viking sword and shield.

The combatant on the right begins with his shield inside and makes a high attack over his left arm. The combatant on the left drops his weapon and throws his right arm out, deflecting the incoming attack. He grasps over his opponent's right arm (controlling the weapon), drops his shield, steps forward on his left foot, and grabs his opponent around the neck to throw him over his hip.

The photos below show a modern interpretation of Talhoffer's technique applied to Viking age weapons.

A grapple and a throw:

Blue (on the right) delivers a high cut to Brown. Brown has discarded his shield and prepares to drop his sword.

Brown brings his right arm up to block and deflect Blue's incoming blow.

Brown grabs Blue's hand to control Blue's weapon and pulls forward to throw Blue off balance, while stepping forward in front of Blue.

Brown reaches behind Blue's neck with his left arm and forces Blue over his hip in a throw.

There are several examples in the Icelandic sagas where grappling is described as a normal part of combat. In some cases, an unarmed man grappled with an armed man who attacked him, such as in chapter 19 of Bjarnar saga Hítdælakappa. As Björn walked out of the farmyard with his visitor Þorsteinn, he realized that Þorsteinn had come as an assassin. Björn, who was unarmed, moved away, giving Þorsteinn an opening. Þorsteinn raised his axe to strike, but Björn went under the axe to grapple. Björn threw Þorsteinn down, then strangled him.

In other cases, an armed man might choose to discard weapons that had become useless, and close the distance to grapple. In chapter 65 of Egils saga, Egill and Atli's shields were so badly shattered by the exchange of blows that they became useless, and they threw them away. Egill also threw away his sword and grappled with Atli, eventually killing him by biting through his throat. In a similar situation in chapter 21 of Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings, Atli threw away his sword and went underneath Þorgrím's defense to grapple with him.

Parrying with the hand, as done in this illustrated sequence, occasionally shows up in fights described in the sagas. In chapter 17 of Brennu-Njáls saga, Þjóstólfur attacked Hrútur with his axe. Hrútur stepped aside, as taught in the combat treatises, and he used his left hand to deflect the axe while simultaneously attacking Þjóstólf's leg with the sword in his right hand.

Parrying with the hand didn't always work. In chapter 37 of Grettis saga, Grettir struck at Þorbjörn, presumably with his sax. Þorbjörn parried with his hand, but Grettir's blow struck off Þorbjörn's hand and subsequently his head.

Later combat treatises, such as Meyer, describe three phases for each exchange in a fight: Zufechten (Onset); Handarbeit (Handwork); and Abzug (Withdrawal). Talhoffer's techniques focus on the onset. Little is said about handwork and nothing about withdrawal. So how do two combatants fighting with Viking sword and shield withdraw? We are just beginning to find satisfactory answers.

The shield seems to make useless the withdrawal techniques that are taught in the later manuals. During withdrawal, a combatant seeks to disengage without being struck by his opponent. Typically, a combatant delivers a cut to cover his retreat. The cut has little chance of connecting, but does serve to discourage his opponent from following as the combatant retreats.

However, when fighting with Viking age sword and shield, the shield removes any threat from these out-of-range attacks. The shield can block these attacks, allowing the opponent to step in and follow with further blade work as a combatant attempts to retreat.

We know from stories in the sagas, such as the fight at Eyvindarstaðir (right) described in chapter 18 of Vopnfirðinga saga, that earnest fights could go on for a very long time without any wounds being inflicted. Þorvarðr grew so weary during the fight that he cast himself down against a wall to rest.

Although not describing a Viking age fight, Íslendinga saga (chapter 172) says that a fight continued well into the night, and at times, men rested as if playing in a ball game.

We also know that earnest fights could go on for a long time despite serious wounds. In chapter 16 of Víglundar saga, Jökull and Víglundur fought fiercely for the better part of a day. Eventually, Víglundur cut off Jökul's arm and then killed him. Víglundur immediately fell down unconscious from loss of blood.

These kinds of episodes suggest that Viking-age combatants were familiar with effective withdrawal techniques, allowing them to get out of range to plan another attack.

Additionally, there are countless examples in the sagas of men exchanging verses, quips, or other heroic bons mots during a fight. It's unlikely that even the bravest hero would take the time to compose and speak a verse while in range. More likely, these words were spoken after the combatants had disengaged and withdrawn out of range.

When Gísli Súrsson was fighting off twelve attackers single-handedly, as is told in chapter 35 of Gísla saga, one of them said, "Lay down your weapons and give them to me, and your wife, Auðr, too." Gísli replied, "You are ill-suited for either my weapons or my wife," as he began his attack anew, slicing off the man's spear shaft with his axe. This part of the fight took place on the rocky crag shown to the left in Geirþjófsfjörður in west Iceland.

Together, these literary passages all suggest that an effective withdrawal technique existed in Viking-age combat.

One technique that shows promise is to initiate a withdrawal with a shove. When two fighters are bound up with little additional work that either can do, a combatant can shove forward and then step backwards. Doing so opens the space between them, allowing the combatant to judge available options, and either to withdraw safely or to prepare a new attack.

The photo on the right shows an interpretation of the shove. Blue (on the right) is attempting to apply a shield bind, while Brown initiates a withdraw by shoving and then stepping away.

To the opponent, the shove is confusing, since it's not immediately clear whether the shove is initiating continuing pressure leading to an advance, or is an attack meant to cause the loss of balance, or whether it is merely a jerk that provides the time and space for a withdrawal.

Fights could go on for such a long time that combatants might ask for a truce, or for a break in the fight to recover their strength. In chapter 9 of Gunnars saga Keldugnúpsfífls, Gunnar rode out to Örn's farm, knocked on the door, and told Örn to defend himself. They fought for a long time. Örn tired before Gunnar, because he was an older man, and he asked Gunnar for a pause. They rested, leaning against their weapons. When they began the fight again, Örn fought with renewed vigor, but Gunnar eventually cut through Örn's helmet and skull, killing him.

A truce during a fight was sacrosanct. It was unthinkable to break a truce, although the sagas say it occasionally happened. One such truce-breaker was Hrafn, described in chapter 12 of Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu. Gunnlaugr and Hrafn fought for a very long time. Eventually, Gunnlaugr hacked off Hrafn's leg. Hrafn dropped back onto a tree stump, while the two discussed the fight. Hrafn asked for a drink of water, and Gunnlaugr asked for and received promises that Hrafn would not trick or deceive him. Gunnalugr brought water in his helmet to Hrafn. As Gunnlaugr handed over the helmet, Hrafn struck a powerful blow at Gunnlaug's head with his sword. Gunnlaugr killed Hrafn, but Gunnlaugr eventually died from his head wound. To repay Hrafn's cowardly betrayal, Gunnlaug's father, Illugi, killed and mutilated a number of Hrafn's relatives.

Viking shields are large enough to temporarily blind an opponent to an incoming attack, a trick that may be used to advantage. The shield can block the opponent's view of the developing attack. However, a combatant can also temporarily blind himself with his own shield if he's not careful, blocking his own view of his opponent's attack.

The stories say that fighters sometimes swapped weapons from one hand to another. In chapter 10 of Droplaugarsona saga, it is said that Helgi showed his skill in arms in a fight against Hjarrandi. Helgi threw up his sword and shield and caught them in the opposite hands, which allowed him to strike a blow against Hjarrandi's thigh.

We have found a technique for doing this swap that is extremely confusing to the opponent, since the swap appears at first to be merely a change in guard. The historical sources are silent on how best to take advantage of this swap, but our research continues.

The move would seem to be very risky, yet Helgi was considered to be one of the three best fighters in Iceland (Eyrbyggja saga, ch.12).

A short video demonstration of this technique is available here in QuickTime or Windows Media format.

Later medieval combat treatises teach the value of cuts made with the short edge (the back edge) of the sword. Several of the master cuts, considered to be essential for effective combat in the German longsword tradition, are short edge cuts. An illustration of the short edge Schielhauw cut with a longsword is shown to the left, taken from Meyer's combat treatise published in 1570. Cuts made with the long edge are more powerful, but short edge attacks have some of their own benefits.

For example, if Blue delivers a long edge high cut and Red parries with his shield, Blue is done; there is no more work he can do.

However, if Blue uses the short edge, and the cut is parried...

there is still more work that Blue can do. The attack is less powerful, but the angulation of the blade permits additional targets to be reached using the short edge.

Some medieval combat systems do not appear to use the short edge at all. Significantly, the earliest of the medieval combat manuals, the Royal Armouries MS I.33 from the early 14^th century, does not teach the use of the short edge for sword and buckler combat. The buckler is a small shield that protects against only one line of attack. Typically, it is used to protect the sword hand. The text does not distinguish the long from the short edge. The illustrations (left) are not always clear, but it appears most, if not all the attacks are with the long edge.

However, despite the apparent similarities with the Viking shield, the buckler is sufficiently different that techniques from I.33 do not seem to apply well to Viking sword and shield. Therefore, the lack of short edge attacks in I.33 is not strong evidence that they weren't used in Viking sword and shield combat.

An additional argument for the use of the short edge is that if you're not going to use the second edge in a fight, why have it? A single edged weapon, with a strong backbone in place of the second edge, is a much more rugged weapon. The reproduction single-edged sax (top) and double-edged sword (bottom) shown in the photos have similar width (left), but the sax has a strong backbone, apparent in the edge photo (right), making it a rugged, trusty weapon. However, the sax lacks the ability to do any of the short edge attacks that makes the sword such a versatile weapon.

Did Vikings use the short edge in their fights? Given the importance of short edge attacks in later medieval combat, and the seeming value when applied to Viking sword and shield, it seems likely that short edge attacks were used by Vikings.

The later longsword treatises teach that portions of the sword other than the blade can be used offensively. The pommel, guard, and hilt can be used for wrenching, thrusting, catching, and striking, as taught by Mair, Ringeck, Meyer, and Starhemberg. Most of these tricks don't work well with a Viking age sword, due to the great differences between the weapons from the different periods, seen in the photo. A reproduction Viking sword is shown side by side with a reproduction 16^th century longsword. The greater length of the grip and of the guard of the longsword allow it to be used for many more tricks and with greater leverage.

One trick that does work well with Viking sword is to snag the edge of an opponent's shield with the pommel (left), leveraging it out of position.

Blue has just hooked Brown's shield with his pommel and pulled it away from Brown's body. The leverage is significant, and Brown can do little to resist.

Whether Brown resists or not, the same motion Blue used to pull the shield away also sets his sword point in Brown's face for a fast and unpleasant follow-up attack.

The sagas say that occasionally the pommel was used to strike a blow. Typically, the blows were not meant to be lethal, but rather were intended to humiliate. In chapter 82 of Grettis saga, Þorbjörn woke up Glaumr by hitting him on the ear with his pommel. In chapter 10 of Hænsna-Þóris saga, Þorkell told a farm hand to do his bidding, or else he'd plant his sword pommel in the man's nose.

It's not clear how boys trained to learn the use of weapons. A few wooden swords and fragments have been found, some of which represent faithful copies of real weapons, but we don't know if they were toys or serious practice weapons.

Nor is it clear at what age boys started training. It has been suggested that as soon as boys were able to stand and grasp objects, wooden toy swords were put in their hands. Perhaps the first steps in teaching the use of weapons began with boys as young as three years old.

Archaeological evidence suggests that even young boys had exposure to and skill with weapons.

A number of child-size iron weapons have been found in children's graves. The sword, spearhead, and axehead shown to the left were found in a child's grave in Norway, along with a similarly sized shield boss. The sword, probably cut down from a full-sized sword, is only 39cm long (15in). The hilt suggests a date in the first half of the 10^th century.

Similarly, a child's size axe was found in the grave of a 10 year old boy at Straumur in Iceland. The axe head is 5cm (2in.) long. We don't know if these were training weapons, or weapons meant for use in earnest combat by children, or simply tokens of the family's wealth.

The evidence from the sagas is contradictory. One episode suggests children were not capable of wielding adult-sized weapons. In chapter 11 of Fljótsdæla saga, Helgi and Grímr Droplaugarson, aged twelve and ten years, left their home one night in order to kill Þorgrímr tordýfill (dungbeetle) for his slander. The boys carried their usual thonged-spears (snærisspjót), but they did not carry their late father's sword because neither had the strength to carry it.

Other saga evidence suggests that young boys did use weapons to kill, notably chapter 40 of Egils saga Skallagrímssonar. Young Egill used an axe to kill a player on an opposing team in a ball game in retaliation for some rough treatment in the game played at Hvítarvellir (right).

Egill was six years old.

There are examples that suggest that boys were "excused" from combat. They were not expected to participate, and they were shielded from it. In chapter 14 of Hrafnkels saga, Hrafnkel and his men attacked Eyvindr and his party. The boy traveling with Eyvindr did not participate because he didn't think he was strong enough. After the fight began, he was free to ride away on his horse.

In chapter 44 of Eyrbyggja saga, the story of the fight in the hayfield at Kárssatðir is told (left, as the farm appears today). After Snorri goði broke up the fight, he allowed Steinþórr and his men to ride away without being followed. Subsequently, it was discovered that Snorri's son Þóroddr had been seriously wounded by Steinþórr. The boy was twelve years old. Snorri immediately gathered his men to chase after Steinþórr in order to repay him for his shameful act.

Other episodes in the sagas suggest that boys did participate in killings, particularly for revenge. There is the example in chapter 11 of Fljótsdæla saga described above, where the sons of Droplaug killed Þorgrímr tordýfill. Another example is related in chapter 14 of Hávarðar saga Ísfirðing. Þorsteinn and Grímr, 12 and 10 years old, attacked and killed the powerful Hólmgöngu-Ljótr (Ljot the dueler) to avenge the harsh treatment the boys' father received at Ljót's hands.

In chapter 42 of Vatnsdæla saga, Þorgrímr, the father of the 12 year old boy Þorkell krafla, made a deal with his illegitimate son. If the boy were to bury an axe in the head of Þorkell silfri, one of Þorgrím's rivals, the boy could keep the axe, and Þorgrímr would acknowledge the boy as his son. The boy kept his side of the bargain, and after the killing, he said that it was not too much work to acquire the axe.

The stories suggest that Norse people were familiar with the concept of "mock" combat, called skylming. It's not clear whether this "fencing" was sport or practice, or perhaps both. In chapter 12 of Gunnlaugs saga ormstunga, Gunnlaugr came upon two men fencing who were surrounded by many spectators. Gunnlaugr walked away in silence when he realized they mocked him as they fought.

The sagas occasionally mention berserks, warriors with exceptional ferocity and strength, some having supernatural powers. But the sagas don't seem to agree on just what made someone a berserk. It's not clear that the word (berserkr) had a consistent meaning in the saga age.

Some berserks were valiant warriors, the vanguard of the king's fighters and were admired. Others seem to have been thoroughly evil men, roaming the countryside challenging weaker men to duels, with their wealth and their women at stake. Others were cowards and bullies, unable to fight effectively at all. In some cases, the word was applied to any hard fighter. Perhaps the word had multiple meanings in the saga age.

The berserks who served the king of Norway defended the bow of the ship. Chapter 9 of Vatnsdæla saga says that they used wolf-skin cloaks (vargstakkr) as their mail shirts (brynja), and so they were called Wolf-Skins (úlfhéðinn). They fought ferociously for the king.

Other berserks could enter a trance-like rage, exhibiting extraordinary strength. Once in this frenzied state, they were not like human beings, but more like animals. They howled like wild animals, and they bit the edge of their shields. The image of a berserk biting his shield has been preserved in a 12^th century chess piece (right).

The beserks had no fear of fire or iron. Swords would not bite them, and they could walk through fire without being burned. A berserk could blunt his opponent's weapon by looking at it. They were shape-changers, taking on characteristics of wild animals. When they charged, they were unstoppable. But when the frenzy wore off, they were exhausted and powerless and had to lie down and rest.

Chapter 6 of Ynglinga saga says that these skills were first taught to men by Óðinn, the highest of the gods.

Some modern scholars have suggested that berserks used medicinal herbs (such as mushrooms) or other drugs to enter their trance state. To my knowledge, there is little in the sagas, or in other sources, to suggest that foreign materials were needed to bring on this frenzied state.

The etymology of the word berserkr is greatly debated. Some have suggested the word derives from "bare shirted", since berserks went into battle without mail, and thus bare of any armor. Others suggest an older German derivation meaning "bear shirt", since these men wore the skins of animals, which could have included bear skins. Both suggestions would seem to have problems.

In the sagas, berserks sometimes appear as stock characters. They are suitable villains for the saga hero to vanquish. Chapter 25 of Eyrbyggja saga tells the story of Halli and Leiknir, two berserks who were given to Styr. At first, Styr was able to put them to good use against his enemies, but later, the berserks became troublesome. In chapter 28, Halli asked for the hand of Styr's daughter in marriage, which would have been a disgrace for Styr's family. Styr went to Snorri goði for advice, who devised a plan.

Styr told the berserks that they must prove themselves worthy of the marriage by building a road through an impassible lava field. When they finished the arduous task, Styr invited the berserks to take a hot bath and to rest. Styr locked them in the bath-house, and then made the house unbearably hot. As the berserks broke down the door and burst out, Styr killed them with a spear. He buried them in a deep hole alongside the path through the lava. The grave mound is still visible (left), and when it was investigated, the mound was found to contain the bones of two very large men.

Some berserks seem to have been merely incompetent. Björn járnhaus (iron-skull) was a great bully who came to a house where Glúmur was a guest, as is told in chapter 6 of Víga-Glúms saga. When the bully turned to insulting Glúmur as he sat on the bench, Glúmur jumped up, grabbed a burning log from the fire, and started beating Björn on the shoulders and head. Björn, stumbling and falling under the rain of blows, barely got out the door. The next day, his death was reported.

In same cases, strong fighters were called berserks, even though there is nothing in the saga to suggest that they entered a battle frenzy or took on other aspects of a berserk during their fights. Helgi Harðbeinsson is called a berserk in chapter 60 of Laxdæla saga. In the brutal fight that developed later and described in chapter 64, nothing in Helgi's actions suggests a berserk frenzy.

Not everyone in the sagas is depicted as being skilled with arms. In chapter 24 of Finnboga saga ramma, Uxi struck at Finnbogi three times with a two-handed axe, and three times failed to connect.

In chapter 24 of Bjarnar saga Hítdælakappa, Þórðr sent the brothers Beinir and Högni armed with axes to kill Björn at his home at Hólmur, on the shore of Hítarvatn (right). When they made their attack, Björn used no weapons on the brothers, but he was able to grapple with them and bind their hands behind their backs. Björn then stuck their axes under their bonds in back and sent the brothers back to Þórðr, thoroughly humiliated.

Nor is everyone in the sagas depicted as being courageous in their use of weapons. In chapter 39 of Harðar saga og Hólmverja, Þórólfr entered Ref's house at night to kill him. As Þórólfr waited outside Ref's bed-closet in the dark, his nerve failed him. Ref's mother, Þorbjörg, saw the killer and shouted a warning. Þorbjörg grabbed Þórólfr, got him underneath her, and killed him by biting through his throat.

Men were not above using dirty tricks to gain the advantage in a fight. In chapter 23 of Fóstbræðra saga, Falgeirr and Þormóðr were fighting on a cliff above the sea. Both had been severely wounded, and both were exhausted. While grappling, they fell into the sea. In the water, Þormóðr pulled down Falgeir's trousers so he couldn't swim, and Falgeirr drowned.

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