Viking Age Arms and Armor
Viking Spear

The spear was the most commonly used weapon in the Viking age. It was often the choice of someone who was unable to afford a sword.

During the Viking age, spear heads took many forms. The photo to the left shows a modern reproduction, typical of the late Viking age. The top photo to the right shows an 11th century spearhead, while the bottom photo to the right shows a 10th century spearhead. Earlier spearheads were about 20cm (8in) long, while later ones were as long as 60cm (24in). In chapter 55 of Laxdæla saga, Helgi had a spear with a blade one ell long (about 50cm, or 20in). He thrust the blade through Bolli's shield, and through Bolli. The photo below shows an assortment of Viking era spear heads, illustrating the variations in size and shape. Some spear heads, including all those in the photo above, had "wings" on the head, useful for a variety of tricks. These are called krókspjót (barbed spear) in the stories.

The spearheads were made of iron, and, like sword blades, were made using pattern welding techniques (described in the article on swords) during the early part of the Viking era (left). They were frequently decorated with inlays of precious metals or with scribed geometric patterns (right).

In cross-section, spear heads were lozenge shaped, with a thick central rib, clearly visible in the reproduction spearhead shown to the right. The head tapered smoothly to a sharp edge on either side of the rib.

Spear heads were fixed to wooden shafts using a rivet. The sockets on the surviving spear heads suggest that the shafts were typically round, with a diameter of 2-3cm (about one inch). However, there is little evidence that tells us the length of the shaft. The archaeological evidence is negligible, and the sagas are, for the most part, silent. Chapter 6 of Gísla saga tells of a spear so long-shafted that a man's outstretched arm could touch the rivet. The language used suggests that such a long shaft was uncommon. The reproduction spear on the left has a shaft of that length, while the other spear in the photo has a shorter shaft. First impressions when working with these reproduction spears suggest that the shorter spear is a speedier, better balanced weapon. However, the later medieval combat manuals teach techniques for extremely long shafted pole weapons that result in speedy tricks, some of which seem to apply very well to long Viking age spears. Perhaps the best guess we can make is that the combined length of shaft and head of Viking age spears was 2 to 3m (7-10ft) long, although one can make arguments for the use of spears having both longer and shorter shafts. A strong, straight-grained wood such as ash was used.

Whatever the typical length might have been, a story from chapter 15 of Fóstbræðra saga suggests that the amount of wood was not insubstantial. Gaut's men ran out of firewood while cooking their meal. Gautr went to Þorgeir's tent and broke up his spear shaft and shield to provide firewood sufficient to cook the meal. Þorgeirr seemed unperturbed when he returned to the camp and discovered his weapons were missing, but he later returned the favor by splitting Gautr apart down to his shoulders using his axe.

There are examples in the sagas of spear shafts reinforced with iron. In chapter 40 of Vatnsdæla saga, it is said that Ingólf's spear had a broad blade and a shaft reinforced with iron. In other historical periods, the far end of the spear shaft was covered with a metal butt cap, to help protect the wooden shaft and to help balance the weapon. The evidence for the use of these caps in the Viking age is very slight, so if they were used, they were not common. The rivets that attached the spear head to the shaft on surviving historical weapons are surprisingly small, as shown in the photo to the right. The rivet head is circled in red.

A passage from chapter 48 of Grettis saga suggests that the rivet could easily be removed. Grettir arrived at Þorbjörn's farm, Þoroddstaðir, to take revenge on Þorbjörn for his killing of Grettir's brother, Atli. After Grettir arrived at the farm, he sat down and removed the rivet to prevent Þorbjörn from throwing the spear back at him. The head flew off when Grettir threw the spear. After killing Þorbjörn and his son with his sax, Grettir searched for the spearhead, but couldn't find it. According to the saga, the spearhead was found in the marshland behind the farm centuries later (shown to the left, as it appears today). The saga author says that people alive at the time the saga was written could remember the spearhead being found.

Many people think of the spear as a throwing weapon. One of the Norse myths tells the story of the first battle in the world, in which Oðin, the highest of the gods, threw a spear over the heads of the opposing combatants as a prelude to the fight. The sagas say that spears were also thrown in this manner when men, rather than gods, fought. At the battle at Geirvör described in chapter 44 of Eyrbyggja saga, the saga author says that Steinþórr threw a spear over the heads of Snorri goði and his men for good luck, according to the old custom.

While spears were certainly used as missiles during the Viking age, there's a disadvantage to throwing your weapon away in a fight. Not only do you lose your weapon, but you risk having your opponent pick it up and use it against you if you miss. Worse, your weapon may be caught in flight and flung back at you, a trick used on several occasions by Gunnar (e.g., Brennu-Njáls saga chapter 54). Despite these risks, the sagas are filled with examples where spears were thrown, such as chapter 145 of Brennu-Njáls saga. Spears were also used with "throwing strings" (snærisspjót) for longer reach, such as in chapter 24 of Reykdæla saga og Víga-Skútu where Skúta shot a spear across a river ford, killing Þrándur.

More commonly, the spear was used as a thrusting weapon. It provided a means to inflict injuries from a distance.

This capability was used to advantage in mass battles. Norsemen, as a rule, tended to avoid mass battles, primarily because they weren't as good at them as other Europeans of the time. However, if a mass battle were necessary, men lined up, shoulder to shoulder, with shields overlapping. After all the preliminaries, which included rock throwing, name calling, the trading of insults, and shouting a war cry (æpa heróp), the two lines advanced towards each other. When the lines met, the battle was begun. Behind the wall of shields, each line was well protected. Once a line was broken, and one side could pass through the line of the other side, the battle was lost. Terrible damage could be done from behind, and the battle usually broke down into armed melees between small groups of men.

Before either line broke, while the two lines were going at each other hammer and tongs, the spear offered some real advantages. A fighter in the second rank could use his spear to reach over the heads of his comrades in the first rank and attack the opposing line. Konungs skuggsjá (King’s Mirror), a 13^th century Norwegian manual for men of the king, says that in the battle line, a spear is more effective than two swords.

When the line broke, stories say that people would sling their shields over their shoulders and use the spear two-handed, something that Þórolfr did in chapter 53 of Egils saga. Used this way, the spear has even more reach, since the fighter can bring his hands way back towards the butt end of the spear.

This technique works well in single combat, as well. In chapter 45 of Grettis saga, Þorbjörn knocked loudly on the door at Atli's farm, then hid. When Atli went to the door, Þorbjörn rushed up holding his spear in two hands and ran Atli through. When he took the blow, Atli said, "Broad spears are in fashion these days," and fell dead.

In a thrust, the spear shaft can slide so that both hands are at the butt end of the shaft, allowing the spear to reach the full extent of the shaft in a lunge (right), greatly extending the reach of the thrust. When used two handed, the spear provides the combatant with enough leverage to lift his opponent up off his feet, impaled on the tip of spear. Þórólfur did just that with Earl Hring in chapter 53 of Egils saga.

I used to think that the spear, despite its advantage of reach, was slow, compared to a weapon like the sword. I have been shown otherwise. A spearman can keep a swordsman very busy, flicking the point from face to belly and back again, while staying out of range of the sword. However, a spearman would need to be wary that anyone armed with a sword didn't find his way past the point of the spear. Once past the point, the swordsman would have every advantage. The stories say that fighters armed with swords had the ability to cut a spear shaft in two with their sword, rendering the spear useless. For instance, in chapter 31 of Finnboga saga ramma, as Jökull thrust at Þorkell with a spear, Finnbogi cut the spear shaft in two with his sword.

The spearman, now holding a stick, still has many good options; the fight is not yet over. For example, he could step out, choke up, and use the butt end of the spear against the swordsman. The spearman might have avoided having his spearhead lopped off in the first place by shortening his grip, bringing his spear under the shield, and attacking the other side.

One response to a spear thrust is to jump over it. In chapter 146 of Brennu-Njáls saga, Kári jumped up as Lambi lunged at him with a spear. Kári landed on the spear shaft, breaking it.

Spears were occasionally used in other ways in combat. In chapter 16 of Reykdæla saga og Víga-Skútu,  Steingrímur and his men were battling Áskell and his men, who were on a bank above the frozen river. Helgi used his spear shaft to vault over the ice and up onto the bank where Áskell and his men were fighting. It didn't do him much good, since Háls killed him immediately. In chapter 6 of Fóstbræðra saga, Þorgeir watched from the top of a snowy ridge as Bultradi made his way up the slope for a fight with Þorgeir. Bultradi cut steps in the hard, frozen snow with his axe as he worked his way up the hill. Þorgeir set his spear underneath him on the snowy hill, with the spear point facing down the slope. Þorgeir slid down the slope on his spear and drove his axe into Bultradi's chest as he whizzed by.

We know little of the details of how spears were used in the Viking age. Some of the later medieval fight manuals teach techniques for staff weapons that can be adopted to Viking age spears, but we don't know if those techniques were used in the Viking age.