The axe was often the choice of the poorest man in the Viking age. Even the lowliest farm had to have a wood axe (right) for cutting and splitting wood. In desperation, a poor man could pick up the farm axe and use it in a fight.

Axes meant for battle were designed a bit differently than farm axes. The photo to the left shows two reproduction axes based on 10^th century finds, while the photo on the right shows a historic 10^th century axe head. Axe heads were made of iron and were single edged.

A wide variety of axe head shapes were used in the Viking age. The sketch to the right shows three different 11^th century axe heads, while the photo to the left shows three earlier axe heads.

In the early part of the Viking era, the cutting edge was generally 7 to 15cm (3-6in) long, while later, axes became much larger. The cutting edge of the largest of the axe heads shown to the right is 22cm (9in) long. The edge of this axe is made of hardened steel welded to the iron head. The join line is clearly visible in the sketch and in the historical axe head. The steel permitted the axe to hold a better edge than iron would have allowed.

Some axe heads were elaborately decorated with inlays of precious metals, notably the Mammen axe head. The head is decorated on every flat surface with inlays of gold and silver and was found in a rich grave that dates from the year 971.

Typically, the head had a wedge-shaped cross section. The cross section of the head near the edge was sometimes diamond shape, which provided for greater strength for a given weight of iron. (A modern reproduction is shown in the near left photo, while a photo of a historic axe head with that diamond edge profile is shown to the right.)

Fóstbræðra saga chapter 23 tells of a special axe made by Bjarni for Þormóðr, which was hammered all the way out to the edge with no obstructions, resulting in a very sharp blade.

However, some axes had very thin, elegant cross-sections. (A reproduction is shown in the middle left and a historic axe far left, all on similar scales). This axe is too thin and delicate for splitting wood; this axe is meant for splitting skulls.

Later in the Viking era, axe heads became much larger, with crescent shaped edges 22 to 45cm (9-18in) long. These axes were called breið-øx (broad axe).

Thick, wedge shaped axe heads (left) were made as a single piece, with the hole for the shaft punched out with a drift. The thin blades show evidence of having been folded around what would eventually become the hole for the shaft (seen from above to the right).

The axe shaft was made of wood and was as long as 1m (40in) long. However, the shaft was sized for the intended use of the axe and to balance the axe head. Axes with smaller heads had shorter shafts and were used one handed, while longer shafted weapons were used two handed. Both of the reproduction axes shown to the right are nicely balanced, despite the obvious difference in the length of their shafts.

At one time, my opinion was that the axe, being poorly balanced, was harder to control than a well balanced weapon like a sword. However, recent experiences have forced me to change my opinion.

The photos show a 12^th century axe. The head and shaft weigh only 770g (1.7 lb.), less than some swords. In the hand, it's beautifully balanced, fast, and is easily directed towards the target. It's hard to claim that an axe is brutish or sluggish after experiencing something as well balanced as this example.

One advantage of an axe over other edged weapons is that all the force of the blow is concentrated into a small section of the blade, so the axe has enough power to punch through a helmet or mail.

The curved shape of the head allows the axe to be used for a variety of tricks. It can be used to hook an opponent's ankle, throwing him off balance and onto the ground (right). The identical trick shows up in later combat manuals, such as Meyer (left).

The axe head can be hooked over other body parts, such as the neck, to compel a person to move in a direction he doesn't wish to go. Chapter 22 of Sturlu saga describes how Þorsteinn hooked one of Sturla's men with his axe and dragged him over to where he could be stabbed.

The pointed "horns" at each end of the blade (öxarhyrna) were kept sharp so they could be used offensively, as was done by Kolbeinn in chapter 5 of Grænlendinga þáttur. He drove the horn of his axe into Þórð's throat, killing him. The horns can also be used for slashing attacks, such as across the belly.

The later combat manuals teach that the butt end of long-shafted weapons can be used offensively. Some of these tricks seem directly applicable to the Viking axe. When two combatants have closed the distance, it is possible to strike or wrench with the butt of the shaft, while simultaneously defending against the opponent's attack. While an attack with the butt end is not likely to be lethal, it is certainly likely to distract an opponent.

It's not clear if axes were routinely used as throwing weapons. One of the few example from the sagas where an axe was thrown is in chapter 33 of Harðar saga og Hólmverja. In a battle, Þorvaldr drove a spear through Sigurðr, who had been fighting with an axe. Sigurðr threw his axe at Þorvaldr, hitting him in the head. They both fell down dead. The sense of the story is that the axe was Sigurð's normal battle axe, rather than a specialized throwing axe.

The battle at Stiklastaðir (which occurred on 29-July-1030) is described in chapter 226 of Óláfs saga helgi. The saga says that large numbers of armed men fought on each side. Men in the front rank used their swords, while those in the next rank thrust with their spears. Men in the rear shot arrows and javelins and threw stones and hand-axes (handöx) at the opposite side.

The historic axe head shown to the left resembles Frankish throwing axes that predate the Viking age. Perhaps some of these axes were still in use and found their way to Norse lands in the Viking era.

Another trick with an axe is described in the sagas. In chapter 62 of Eyrbyggja saga, Þrándr leapt up and hooked the head of his axe over the wall of a fortification at the farm at Eyrr. He pulled himself up by his axe handle into the fortification and cut off Hrafn's arm with his axe. The story doesn't describe the details of the fortification (virki).

Fortifications were entered by raising a man on his shield using spear-points (left), as described in chapter 5 of Gull-Þóris saga. In that case, the fortification was probably wood, since after being raised, Þórir dug his axe into the wall to pull himself up over the top.

Borgarvirki is a different kind of fortification and is shown to the right as it appears today. It was built during the saga age in a natural stone bowl in north Iceland. Inside the bowl are the ruins of huts and a well. It's not certain who built it or what its purpose was.

Images from the Bayeux tapestry (left) show combatants using their axes two-handed, but left-handed. Thus, the blow comes in on the undefended side of their opponent.

We know little of the details of combat techniques used by Vikings when they fought with axes. Many of the later medieval combat manuals teach the use of the halberd, the poleaxe, and other staff weapons. So far, this material has not been very helpful for understanding the techniques of Viking age axes.

Halberds can be used defensively to parry incoming attacks. These defensive techniques for the halberd don't adopt well to Viking age axes because of the differences between the two weapons. However, we know from the sagas that axes were used to parry incoming blows.

To date, our best results have come from applying some of the sword and shield techniques to the one-handed axe (right). The sword and the one-handed axe both have similar reach (left), and many tricks described in the article on sword and shield technique are directly applicable.

However, this approach fails to take advantage of the shape of the axe head. As a result, we are missing many of the hooking, pulling, and wrenching tricks that are clearly possible with an axe. Our research continues.